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| − | Any equivalence relation $\sim$ on a set of objects $\mathscr M$ defines the [[quotient set]] $\mathscr M/\sim$ whose elements are equivalence classes: the equivalence class of an element $M\in\mathscr M$ is denoted $[M]=\{M'\in\mathscr M:~M'\sim M\}$. Description of the quotient set is referred to as the ''classification problem'' for $\mathscr M$ with respect to the equivalence relation. The ''normal form'' of an object $M$ is a "selected representative" from the class $[M]$, usually possessing some nice properties (simplicity, integrability etc). Often (although not always) one requires that two ''distinct'' representatives ("normal forms") are ''not equivalent'' to each other: $M_1\ne M_2\iff M_1\not\sim M_2$.
| + | #REDIRECT [[Normal form]] |
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| − | The equivalence $\sim$ can be an identical transformation in a certain formal system: the respective normal form in such case is a "canonical representative" among many possibilities, see, e.g., [[Disjunctive normal form|disjunctive normal form]] and [[Conjunctive normal form|conjunctive normal form]] for Boolean functions.
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| − | However, the most typical classification problems appear when there is a group $G$ acting on $\mathscr M$: then the natural equivalence relation arises, $M_1\sim M_2\iff \exists g\in G:~g\cdot M_1=M_2$. If both $\mathscr M$ and $G$ are finite-dimensional spaces, the classification problem is usually much easier than in the case of infinite-dimensional spaces.
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| − | Below follows a list (very partial) of the most important classification problems in which normal forms are known and very useful.
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| − | ==Finite-dimensional classification problems==
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| − | When the objects of classification form a finite-dimensional variety, in most cases it is a subvariety of matrices, with the equivalence relation induced by transformations reflecting the change of basis.
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| − | ===Linear maps between finite-dimensional linear spaces===
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| − | Let $\Bbbk$ be a field. A linear map from $\Bbbk^m$ to $\Bbbk^n$ is represented by an $n\times m$ matrix over $\Bbbk$ ($m$ rows and $n$ columns). A different choice of bases in the source and the target space results in a matrix $M$ being replaced by another matrix $M'=HML$, where $H$ (resp., $L$) is an ''invertible'' $m\times m$ (resp., $n\times n$) matrix of transition between the bases,
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| − | $$
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| − | M\sim M'\iff\exists H\in\operatorname{GL}(m,\Bbbk),\ L\in \operatorname{GL}(n,\Bbbk):\quad M'=HML.
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| − | \tag{LR}
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| − | $$
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| − | Obviously, this binary relation $\sim$ is an equivalence (symmetric, reflexive and transitive), called ''left-right linear equivalence''. Each matrix $M$ is left-right equivalent to a matrix (of the same size) with $k\leqslant\min(n,m)$ units on the diagonal and zeros everywhere else. The number $k$ is a complete invariant of equivalence (matrices of different ranks are not equivalent) and is called the [[rank]] of a matrix.
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| − | A similar question may be posed about homomorphisms of finitely generated modules over rings. For some rings the normal form is known as the [[Normal_form_(for_matrices)#The_Smith_normal_form|Smith normal form]].
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| − | ===Linear operators (self-maps)===
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| − | The matrix of a linear operator of an $n$-dimensional space over $\Bbbk$ ''into itself'' is transformed by a change of basis in a more restrictive way compared to (LR): if the source and the target spaces coincide, then necessarily $n=m$ and $L=H^{-1}$. The corresponding equivalence is called [[similarity]] (sometimes ''conjugacy'' or ''linear conjugacy'') of matrices, and the normal form is known as the [[Jordan normal form]], see also [[Normal_form_(for_matrices)#The_Jordan_normal_form|here]]. This normal form is characterized by a specific block diagonal structure and explicitly features the [[Eigen value|eigenvalues]] on the diagonal. Note that this form holds only over an algebraically closed field $\Bbbk$, e.g., $\Bbbk=\CC$.
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| − | ===Quadratic forms on linear spaces===
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| − | A quadratic form $Q\colon\Bbbk^n\to\Bbbk$, $(x_1,\dots,x_n)\mapsto \sum a_{i,j}^n a_{ij}x_ix_j$ with a symmetric matrix $Q$ after a ''linear invertible'' change of coordinates will have a new matrix $Q'=HQH^*$ (the asterisk means the transpose):
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| − | $$
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| − | Q'\sim Q\iff \exists H\in\operatorname{GL}(n,\Bbbk):\ Q'=HQH^*.\tag{QL}
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| − | $$
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| − | The normal form for this equivalence is diagonal, but the diagonal entries depend on the field:
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| − | * Over $\RR$, the diagional entries can be all made $0$ or $\pm 1$. The number of entries of each type is an invariant of classification, called (or closely related) to the [[inertia index]].
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| − | * Over $\CC$, one can keep only zeros and units (not signed). The number of units is called the [[rank]] of a quadratic form; it is a complete invariant.
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| − | ===Quadratic forms on Euclidean spaces===
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| − | This classification deals with real symmetric matrices representing quadratic forms, yet the condition (QL) is represented by a more restrictive condition that the conjugacy matrix $H$ is orthogonal (preserves the Euclidean scalar product):
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| − | $$
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| − | Q'\sim Q\iff \exists H\in\operatorname{O}(n,\RR)=\{H\in\operatorname{GL}(n,\RR):\ HH^*=E\}:\ Q'=HQH^*.\tag{QE}
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| − | $$
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| − | The normal form is diagonal, with the diagonal entries forming a complete system of invariants.
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| − | A similar set of normal forms exists for self-adjoint matrices conjugated by Hermitian matrices.
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| − | ===Conic sections in the real affine and projective plane===
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| − | This problem reduces to classification of quadratic forms on $\RR^3$. An conic section is the intersection of the cone $\{Q(x,y,z)=0\}$ defined by a quadratic form on $\RR^3$, with the affine subspace $\{z=1\}$. Projective transformations are defined by linear invertible self-maps of $\RR^3$, respectively, the affine transformations consist of linear self-maps preserving the plane $\{z=0\}$ in the homogeneous coordinates (the "infinite line"). In addition, one can replace the form $Q$ by $\lambda Q$ with $\lambda\ne 0$. This defines two equivalence relations on the space of quadratic forms.
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| − | The list of normal forms for both classifications is follows from the normal form of quadratic forms:
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| − | {| class="wikitable"
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| − | ! Rank of $Q$ !! Projective curves !! Affine curves
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| − | | 3 || $\varnothing_1=\{x^2+y^2=-1\}$, circle $\{x^2+y^2=1\}$ || $\varnothing_1=\{x^2+y^2=-1\}$, circle $\{x^2+y^2=1\}$, parabola $\{y=x^2\}$, hyperbola $\{x^2-y^2=1\}$
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| − | | 2 || point $\{x^2+y^2=0\}$, two lines $\{x^2-y^2=0\}$ || point $\{x^2+y^2=0\}$, two crossing lines $\{x^2-y^2=0\}$,
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| − | two parallel lines $\{x^2=1\}$, $\varnothing_2=\{x^2=-1\}$
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| − | | 1 || "double" line $\{x^2=0\}$ || $\varnothing_3=\{1=0\}$, "double" line $\{x^2=0\}$
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| − | |}
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| − | Note that the three empty sets $\varnothing_i$, are different from the algebraic standpoint: $\varnothing_1$ is an imaginary cicrle, $\varnothing_2$ is a pair of parallel imaginary lines which intersect "at infinity" (if these imaginary lines intersect at a finite point, this point is real), and $\varnothing_3$ is a double line "at infinity".
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| − | ==Infinite-dimensional classification problems==
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| − | ===Families of finite-dimensional objects===
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| − | $\def\l{\lambda}$
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| − | In each of the above problems one can instead of an individual map $M$ (or a form $Q$) consider a ''local parametric family'' of objects $\{M_\lambda\}$, depending regularly (continuously, $C^k$- or $C^\infty$-differentiably, holomorphically) on finitely many real or complex parameters $\lambda$ varying near a certain point $a$ in the parameter space, $\l\in(\RR^p,a)$ or $\l\in(\CC^p,0)$ respectively. Two such local families $M_\lambda$ and $M'_\lambda$ are said to be equivalent by the action of a group $G$, if there exists a local parametric family of group elements, $\{g_\lambda\}$, also regular (although perhaps in a weaker or just different sense) that conjugates the two families: $g_\lambda\cdot M_\lambda=M_\lambda$ for all admissible values of $\lambda$.
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| − | The most instructive example is that of families of linear operators. A "generic" operator $M=M_0$ is diagonalizable with pairwise different eigenvalues $\mu_1(\lambda),\dots,\mu_n(\lambda)$ (depending, naturally, on $\lambda$). One can show that any finite-parametric family $\{M_\lambda|\lambda\in(\RR^p,0)\}$ can be diagonalized by a transformation $M_\lambda\mapsto H_\lambda M_\lambda H_\lambda^{-1}$ by the similarity transformation depending on $\l\in(\RR^p,0)$ with the same regularity. This follows from the [[Implicit function|Implicit function theorem]].
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| − | However, when some of the eigenvalues tend to a collision $\mu_i(0)=\mu_j(0)$, the diagonalizing transformation $H_\lambda$ may tend to a degenerate matrix so that $H_\lambda^{-1}$ diverges to infinity, while the transformation of a matrix to its Jordan normal form is far away from the family $\{H_\lambda\}$. However, a different choice of the normal form resolves these problems.
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| − | '''Example'''. Assume that the local family of matrices $\{M_\l|\l\in(\RR^p,0)\}$ is a deformation of the matrix $M_0$ whose normal form is a single Jordan block of size $n$. Then there exists a family of invertible matrices $\{H_\l|\l\in(\RR^p,0)\}$ such that
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| − | $$
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| − | H_\l M_\l H_\l^{-1}=
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| − | \begin{pmatrix}
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| − | \mu & 1&\\
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| − | &\mu& 1&\\
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| − | &&\mu&1&\\
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| − | &&&\ddots&\ddots\\
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| − | &&&&\mu&1\\
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| − | \alpha_1&\alpha_2&\alpha_3&\cdots&\alpha_{n-1}&\alpha_n
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| − | \end{pmatrix},\tag{SF}
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| − | $$
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| − | where $\mu=\mu(\l)$ and $\alpha_i=\alpha_i(\l)$, $i=1,\dots,n$ are regular (continuous, smooth, analytic,\dots) functions of the parameters $\l\in(\RR^p,0)$ of the same class as the initial family $\{M_\l\}$.
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| − | The normal form (SF) is called the Sylvester form, or sometimes the [[companion matrix]]. It is closely related to the transformation reducing a higher order linear ordinary differential equation to the system of first order equations, cf. [[Fuchsian_singular_point#Fuchsian_singularity_of_a_linear_.24n.24th_order_differential_equation|here]].
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| − | Deformation of a matrix which consists of several Jordan blocks with different eigenvalues can be reduced to a finite parameter normal form which involves $d$ constants which will depend regularly on $\l$, with
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| − | $$
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| − | d=\sum_\mu (\nu_1(\mu)+3\nu_2(\mu)+5\nu_3(\mu)+\cdots).
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| − | $$
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| − | Hhere $\nu_1(\mu)\geqslant n_2(\mu)\geqslant \nu_3(\mu)\geqslant\cdots~$ are the sizes of the Jordan blocks of $M_0$ with the same eigenvalue $\mu$ (arranged in the non-increasing order), and the summation is extended over all different eigenvalues of the matrix $M_0$ {{Cite|A71|Theorem 4.4.}}.
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| − | For a systematic exposition of this subject, see {{Cite|A83|Sect. 29, 30}}. Normal forms for parametric families of objects (mainly dynamical systems) belong to the area of responsibility of the [[Bifurcation|bifurcation theory]].
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| − | {| class="sortable"
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| − | |valign="top"|{{Ref|A83}}||valign="top"| Arnold V. I., ''Geometrical methods in the theory of ordinary differential equations''. Grundlehren der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, '''250'''. Springer-Verlag, New York-Berlin, 1983, {{MR|0695786}}
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| − | |-
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| − | |valign="top"|{{Ref|A71}} || valign="top"|Arnold V. I., Matrices depending on parameters. ''Russian Math. Surveys'' '''26''' (1971), no. 2, 29--43, {{MR|0301242}}
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| − | |-
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| − | |valign="top"|{{Ref|GG}}||valign="top"| M. Golubitsky, V. Guillemin, ''Stable mappings and their singularities'', Graduate Texts in Mathematics, Vol. '''14'''. Springer-Verlag, New York-Heidelberg, 1973, {{MR|0341518}}.
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| − | | Example || Example
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| − | |}
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| − | ===Germs of full rank maps $(\RR^m,0)\to(\RR^n,0)$===
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| − | The germs of smooth maps between different spaces is an infinite-dimensional manifold on which the infinite-dimensional group of germs of diffeomorphisms of these spaces acts in a natural way: two germs $f,f':(\RR^m,0)\to(\RR^n,0)$ are equivalent, if there exist two germs of diffeomorphisms $h:(\RR^m,0)\to(\RR^m,0)$ and $g:(\RR^n,0)\to(\RR^n,0)$ such that $f=g^{-1}\circ f\circ h$. This left-right action corresponds to a change of local coordinates near the source and target points.
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| − | With each smooth germ one can associate a linear map $M:\RR^m\to\RR^n$ which is the linearization of $f$ ($M$ is also called the tangent map to $f$, the Jacobian matrix or the differential of $f$ at the origin). In coordinates one can write this as follows,
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| − | $$
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| − | \forall x\in (\RR^m,0)\quad f(x)=Mx+\phi(x)\in (\RR^n,0),\qquad M=\biggl(\frac{\partial f_i}{\partial x_j}(0)\biggr)_{\begin{aligned} i&=1,\dots,n, \\ j&=1,\dots, m,\end{aligned}}\quad \|\phi(x)\|=O(\|x\|^2).
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| − | $$
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| − | If the operator $M$ has the full rank, then $f$ is right-left equivalent to the linear germ $g'(x)=Mx$ {{Cite|GG|Corollaries 2.5, 2.6}}.
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| − | These assumptions hold in two cases: where $m\le n$ and $M$ is injective, and where $m\ge n$ and $M$ is surjective. The conclusion reduces the classification of nonlinear germs to that of linear maps, which was already discussed [[#Linear_maps_between_finite-dimensional_linear_spaces|earlier]].
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| − | This result is equivalent to the [[Implicit function]] theorem. In particular, it shows that the image of an [[immersion]] locally looks like a coordinate subspace, and the preimages of points by a [[submersion]] locally look like a family of parallel affine subspaces of the appropriate dimension.
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| − | The obvious reformulation of this theorem is valid also for real-analytic and complex holomoprhic germs.
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| − | ===Germs of maps in small dimension===
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| − | When the rank condition fails, the normal form is nonlinear and is known in small dimensions. The corresponding theory is known by the name Singularity theory of differential mappings, or the [[Catastrophe theory]].
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| − | Thus, a nonconstant holomorphic (or real analytic) map $f:(\C^1,0)\to(\C^1,0)$
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