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''code for correction of arithmetic errors, code that corrects arithmetic errors, arithmetic code''
 
''code for correction of arithmetic errors, code that corrects arithmetic errors, arithmetic code''
  
A code intended for the control of the functioning of an adder. When adding numbers represented in the binary number system, a single slip in the functioning of the adder leads, as a rule, to a change in the result by some power of 2. In this connection, a (single) arithmetic error in the ring of integers <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228501.png" /> is defined as a transformation of a number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228502.png" /> to a number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228503.png" />, <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228504.png" />. The function <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228505.png" /> on <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228506.png" />, defined as the minimum number of arithmetic errors taking <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228507.png" /> to <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228508.png" />, is a metric. An arbitrary finite subset (a code) <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c0228509.png" /> is characterized by its minimum distance
+
A code intended for the control of the functioning of an adder. When adding numbers represented in the binary number system, a single slip in the functioning of the adder leads, as a rule, to a change in the result by some power of 2. In this connection, a (single) arithmetic error in the ring of integers $  \mathbf Z $
 +
is defined as a transformation of a number $  N $
 +
to a number $  N ^ { \prime } = N \pm  2  ^ {i} $,
 +
$  i = 0, 1 , . . . $.  
 +
The function $  \rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} ) $
 +
on $  \mathbf Z \times \mathbf Z $,  
 +
defined as the minimum number of arithmetic errors taking $  N _ {1} $
 +
to $  N _ {2} $,  
 +
is a metric. An arbitrary finite subset (a code) $  K \subset  \mathbf Z $
 +
is characterized by its minimum distance
  
<table class="eq" style="width:100%;"> <tr><td valign="top" style="width:94%;text-align:center;"><img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285010.png" /></td> </tr></table>
+
$$
 +
\rho ( K)  = \
 +
\min  \rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} ),
 +
$$
  
where the minimum is taken over all distinct <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285011.png" />. The sets of <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285012.png" /> or fewer arithmetic errors transform a number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285013.png" /> into a metric ball of radius <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285014.png" /> and centre <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285015.png" />. Therefore if the metric balls of radius <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285016.png" /> described around any two numbers of a code do not intersect (that is, if the minimum distance of the code is greater than <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285017.png" />), then the code is said to be a code that corrects <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285019.png" /> arithmetic errors. If the metric ball of radius <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285020.png" /> described around any number of the code contains no other numbers of the code (that is, if the minimum distance of the code is greater than <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285021.png" />), then the code is called a code that detects <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285023.png" /> arithmetic errors. The metric <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285024.png" /> has the following alternative description:
+
where the minimum is taken over all distinct $  N _ {1} , N _ {2} \in K $.  
 +
The sets of $  t $
 +
or fewer arithmetic errors transform a number $  N $
 +
into a metric ball of radius $  t $
 +
and centre $  N $.  
 +
Therefore if the metric balls of radius $  t $
 +
described around any two numbers of a code do not intersect (that is, if the minimum distance of the code is greater than $  2t $),  
 +
then the code is said to be a code that corrects $  t $
 +
arithmetic errors. If the metric ball of radius $  s $
 +
described around any number of the code contains no other numbers of the code (that is, if the minimum distance of the code is greater than $  s $),  
 +
then the code is called a code that detects $  s $
 +
arithmetic errors. The metric $  \rho $
 +
has the following alternative description:
  
<table class="eq" style="width:100%;"> <tr><td valign="top" style="width:94%;text-align:center;"><img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285025.png" /></td> </tr></table>
+
$$
 +
\rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} )  = \
 +
w ( N _ {1} - N _ {2} ),
 +
$$
  
where <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285026.png" /> is the (arithmetic) weight of <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285027.png" />, i.e. the smallest possible number of non-zero coefficients in the representations
+
where $  w ( N) $
 +
is the (arithmetic) weight of $  N $,  
 +
i.e. the smallest possible number of non-zero coefficients in the representations
  
<table class="eq" style="width:100%;"> <tr><td valign="top" style="width:94%;text-align:center;"><img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285028.png" /></td> <td valign="top" style="width:5%;text-align:right;">(*)</td></tr></table>
+
$$ \tag{* }
 +
= \sum _ {i = 0 } ^ { k }
 +
N _ {i} 2  ^ {i} ,\ \
 +
N _ {i} = 0, \pm  1; \ \
 +
k = 0, 1 , .  . . .
 +
$$
  
For each <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285029.png" /> there is a unique representation (*) on which <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285030.png" />, <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285031.png" />, <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285032.png" />, and the number of non-zero coefficients in the representation is <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285033.png" />. For example, <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285034.png" /> and <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285035.png" />. Since <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285036.png" /> for any <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285037.png" />, one restricts attention to codes that do not contain negative numbers. By the length of a code <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285038.png" /> one means the quantity <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285039.png" />, where <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285040.png" /> is the largest number of the code <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285041.png" />. There corresponds to an arbitrary number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285042.png" /> of a code of length <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285043.png" /> a unique word <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285044.png" /> over the alphabet <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285045.png" /> such that <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285046.png" />. If the code <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285047.png" /> corrects <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285048.png" /> arithmetic errors, then the code <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285049.png" /> corrects <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285050.png" /> errors (of substitution type) by virtue of the fact that <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285051.png" />, where <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285052.png" /> is the Hamming metric (see [[Error-correcting code|Error-correcting code]]). In the study of problems of control of an adder one usually considers an encoding <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285053.png" /> (see [[Coding and decoding|Coding and decoding]]) such that <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285054.png" /> for <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285055.png" /> (which is equivalent to <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285056.png" />, where <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285057.png" />). In this case, the coding operation consists in the multiplication of the number to be encoded by <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285058.png" />, while the detection of errors in the functioning of the adder consists in verifying that the result of the addition is divisible by <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285059.png" />. The code <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285060.png" /> is called an <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285062.png" />-code. The minimum distance of an <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285063.png" />-code is the minimum of the <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285064.png" />, <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285065.png" />. For example, the minimum distance of a <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285066.png" />-code is equal to 2; the code detects single arithmetic errors and is often applied in computers (in the form of a control modulo 3). The best studied are (cyclic and negacyclic) <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285067.png" />-codes with <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285068.png" />; they are characterized by the property that whenever the number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285069.png" />, <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285070.png" />, belongs to the code, then so does the number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285071.png" />. Such codes, called <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285073.png" />-codes, can be conveniently regarded as subsets of the metric space <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285074.png" />, with metric <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285075.png" />. The minimum distances of an <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285076.png" />-code in the metrics <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285077.png" /> and <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285078.png" /> are equal. To each <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285079.png" />-code there is associated the <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285080.png" />-code where <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285081.png" />; it is called the dual code. If 2 or <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285082.png" /> are primitive roots modulo a prime number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285083.png" />, then the <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285084.png" />-code corrects single arithmetic errors and is perfect in the metric <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285085.png" />, that is, the metric balls of radius 1 described around the numbers of the code are not only pairwise disjoint but also fill out the whole of <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285086.png" />. In the dual code, all distances between different numbers of the code are equal to <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285087.png" />. The results listed above for codes are analogues of results for binary linear cyclic error-correcting codes. Meanwhile, there are no known arithmetic analogues of B.C.H. (Bose–Chaudhury–Hocquenghem)-codes; nor are there any known upper bounds for the size of codes with given length and distance, analogous to the best bound for error-correcting codes. Codes correcting <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285088.png" />-ary arithmetic errors <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285089.png" /> possess even more characteristics (a <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285091.png" />-ary arithmetical error is a transformation of a number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285092.png" /> to a number <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285093.png" />, <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285094.png" />; <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285095.png" />). Interest in such codes has increased with the development of computing techniques. Thus, in contrast to error-correcting codes, there are no perfect <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285096.png" />-codes with <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285097.png" /> (<img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285098.png" />) that correct single <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c02285099.png" />-ary arithmetic errors; for <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c022850100.png" /> there are examples known of such codes. Existence conditions for perfect <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c022850101.png" />-codes are of a number-theoretic character and are connected with the study of reciprocity laws in number fields.
+
For each $  N $
 +
there is a unique representation (*) on which $  N _ {k} \neq 0 $,  
 +
$  N _ {i} N _ {i + 1 }  = 0 $,  
 +
$  i = 0 \dots k - 1 $,  
 +
and the number of non-zero coefficients in the representation is $  w ( N) $.  
 +
For example, $  23 = 2  ^ {4} + 2  ^ {2} + 2  ^ {1} + 2  ^ {0} = 2  ^ {5} - 2  ^ {3} - 2  ^ {0} $
 +
and $  w ( 23) = 3 $.  
 +
Since $  \rho ( N _ {1} + N, N _ {2} + N) = \rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} ) $
 +
for any $  N _ {1} , N _ {2} , N \in \mathbf Z $,  
 +
one restricts attention to codes that do not contain negative numbers. By the length of a code $  K $
 +
one means the quantity $  [  \mathop{\rm log} _ {2}  B ( K)] + 1 $,  
 +
where $  B ( K) $
 +
is the largest number of the code $  K $.  
 +
There corresponds to an arbitrary number $  B $
 +
of a code of length $  n $
 +
a unique word $  \beta ( B) = b _ {n - 1 }  \dots b _ {0} $
 +
over the alphabet $  \{ 0, 1 \} $
 +
such that $  B = \sum _ {i = 0 }  ^ {n - 1 } b _ {i} 2  ^ {i} $.  
 +
If the code $  K \subset  \mathbf Z $
 +
corrects $  t $
 +
arithmetic errors, then the code $  \{ {\beta ( B) } : {B \in K } \} $
 +
corrects $  t $
 +
errors (of substitution type) by virtue of the fact that $  d ( \beta ( B _ {1} ), \beta ( B _ {2} )) \geq  \rho ( B _ {1} , B _ {2} ) $,  
 +
where $  d ( \cdot , \cdot ) $
 +
is the Hamming metric (see [[Error-correcting code|Error-correcting code]]). In the study of problems of control of an adder one usually considers an encoding $  f:  \{ 0 \dots M - 1 \} \rightarrow \mathbf Z $(
 +
see [[Coding and decoding|Coding and decoding]]) such that $  f ( i + j) = f ( i) + f ( j) $
 +
for $  i + j < M $(
 +
which is equivalent to $  f ( i) = A \cdot i $,  
 +
where $  A = f ( 1) $).  
 +
In this case, the coding operation consists in the multiplication of the number to be encoded by $  A $,  
 +
while the detection of errors in the functioning of the adder consists in verifying that the result of the addition is divisible by $  A $.  
 +
The code $  K _ {A,M} = \{ 0, A \dots A ( M - 1) \} $
 +
is called an $  AM $-
 +
code. The minimum distance of an $  AM $-
 +
code is the minimum of the $  w ( A \cdot i) $,  
 +
$  i = 1 \dots M - 1 $.  
 +
For example, the minimum distance of a $  3M $-
 +
code is equal to 2; the code detects single arithmetic errors and is often applied in computers (in the form of a control modulo 3). The best studied are (cyclic and negacyclic) $  AM $-
 +
codes with $  M = ( 2  ^ {n} \pm  1)/A $;  
 +
they are characterized by the property that whenever the number $  B = \sum _ {i = 0 }  ^ {n - 1 } b _ {i} 2  ^ {i} $,  
 +
$  b _ {i} = 0, 1 $,
 +
belongs to the code, then so does the number $  B ^ { \prime } = \pm  b _ {n - 1 }  + \sum _ {i = 1 }  ^ {n - 1 } b _ {i} 2  ^ {i} $.  
 +
Such codes, called $  ( n, A) $-
 +
codes, can be conveniently regarded as subsets of the metric space $  \mathbf N _ {m} = \{ {0 \dots m - 1 } : {m = 2  ^ {n} \pm  1 } \} $,  
 +
with metric $  \rho _ {m} ( x, y) = w _ {m} ( x - y) = \min \{ w ( x - y), w ( x - y - m) \} $.  
 +
The minimum distances of an $  ( n, A) $-
 +
code in the metrics $  \rho $
 +
and $  \rho _ {m} $
 +
are equal. To each $  ( n, A) $-
 +
code there is associated the $  ( n, A  ^ {*} ) $-
 +
code where $  AA  ^ {*} = m $;  
 +
it is called the dual code. If 2 or $  - 2 $
 +
are primitive roots modulo a prime number $  p $,  
 +
then the $  (( p - 1)/2, p) $-
 +
code corrects single arithmetic errors and is perfect in the metric $  \rho _ {m} $,  
 +
that is, the metric balls of radius 1 described around the numbers of the code are not only pairwise disjoint but also fill out the whole of $  \mathbf N _ {m} $.  
 +
In the dual code, all distances between different numbers of the code are equal to $  \left ] ( p + 1)/6 \right [ $.  
 +
The results listed above for codes are analogues of results for binary linear cyclic error-correcting codes. Meanwhile, there are no known arithmetic analogues of B.C.H. (Bose–Chaudhury–Hocquenghem)-codes; nor are there any known upper bounds for the size of codes with given length and distance, analogous to the best bound for error-correcting codes. Codes correcting $  q $-
 +
ary arithmetic errors $  ( q > 2) $
 +
possess even more characteristics (a $  q $-
 +
ary arithmetical error is a transformation of a number $  N $
 +
to a number $  N ^ { \prime } = N \pm  aq  ^ {i} $,  
 +
$  a = 1 \dots q - 1 $;  
 +
$  i = 0, 1 , . . . $).  
 +
Interest in such codes has increased with the development of computing techniques. Thus, in contrast to error-correcting codes, there are no perfect $  AM $-
 +
codes with $  q = 2  ^ {l} $(
 +
$  l > 1 $)  
 +
that correct single $  q $-
 +
ary arithmetic errors; for $  q = 6 $
 +
there are examples known of such codes. Existence conditions for perfect $  AM $-
 +
codes are of a number-theoretic character and are connected with the study of reciprocity laws in number fields.
  
 
====References====
 
====References====
<table><TR><TD valign="top">[1]</TD> <TD valign="top">  Yu.G. Dadaev,  "The theory of arithmetic codes" , Moscow  (1981)  (In Russian)</TD></TR><TR><TD valign="top">[2]</TD> <TD valign="top">  E. Weldon jr.,  "Error-correcting codes" , M.I.T.  (1972)</TD></TR><TR><TD valign="top">[3]</TD> <TD valign="top">  J.L. Massey,  O.N. Garcia,  , ''Advances in information systems science'' , '''4''' , New York-London  (1972)  pp. 273–326</TD></TR><TR><TD valign="top">[4]</TD> <TD valign="top">  I.M. Boyarinov,  G.A. Kabatyanskii,  "Perfect single-error-correcting arithmetic <img align="absmiddle" border="0" src="https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/legacyimages/c/c022/c022850/c022850102.png" />-codes"  ''Problemy Peredachi Informatsii'' , '''12''' :  1  (1976)  pp. 16–23  (In Russian)</TD></TR></table>
+
<table><TR><TD valign="top">[1]</TD> <TD valign="top">  Yu.G. Dadaev,  "The theory of arithmetic codes" , Moscow  (1981)  (In Russian)</TD></TR><TR><TD valign="top">[2]</TD> <TD valign="top">  E. Weldon jr.,  "Error-correcting codes" , M.I.T.  (1972)</TD></TR><TR><TD valign="top">[3]</TD> <TD valign="top">  J.L. Massey,  O.N. Garcia,  , ''Advances in information systems science'' , '''4''' , New York-London  (1972)  pp. 273–326</TD></TR><TR><TD valign="top">[4]</TD> <TD valign="top">  I.M. Boyarinov,  G.A. Kabatyanskii,  "Perfect single-error-correcting arithmetic AN-codes"  ''Problemy Peredachi Informatsii'' , '''12''' :  1  (1976)  pp. 16–23  (In Russian)</TD></TR></table>

Latest revision as of 09:46, 26 March 2023


code for correction of arithmetic errors, code that corrects arithmetic errors, arithmetic code

A code intended for the control of the functioning of an adder. When adding numbers represented in the binary number system, a single slip in the functioning of the adder leads, as a rule, to a change in the result by some power of 2. In this connection, a (single) arithmetic error in the ring of integers $ \mathbf Z $ is defined as a transformation of a number $ N $ to a number $ N ^ { \prime } = N \pm 2 ^ {i} $, $ i = 0, 1 , . . . $. The function $ \rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} ) $ on $ \mathbf Z \times \mathbf Z $, defined as the minimum number of arithmetic errors taking $ N _ {1} $ to $ N _ {2} $, is a metric. An arbitrary finite subset (a code) $ K \subset \mathbf Z $ is characterized by its minimum distance

$$ \rho ( K) = \ \min \rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} ), $$

where the minimum is taken over all distinct $ N _ {1} , N _ {2} \in K $. The sets of $ t $ or fewer arithmetic errors transform a number $ N $ into a metric ball of radius $ t $ and centre $ N $. Therefore if the metric balls of radius $ t $ described around any two numbers of a code do not intersect (that is, if the minimum distance of the code is greater than $ 2t $), then the code is said to be a code that corrects $ t $ arithmetic errors. If the metric ball of radius $ s $ described around any number of the code contains no other numbers of the code (that is, if the minimum distance of the code is greater than $ s $), then the code is called a code that detects $ s $ arithmetic errors. The metric $ \rho $ has the following alternative description:

$$ \rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} ) = \ w ( N _ {1} - N _ {2} ), $$

where $ w ( N) $ is the (arithmetic) weight of $ N $, i.e. the smallest possible number of non-zero coefficients in the representations

$$ \tag{* } N = \sum _ {i = 0 } ^ { k } N _ {i} 2 ^ {i} ,\ \ N _ {i} = 0, \pm 1; \ \ k = 0, 1 , . . . . $$

For each $ N $ there is a unique representation (*) on which $ N _ {k} \neq 0 $, $ N _ {i} N _ {i + 1 } = 0 $, $ i = 0 \dots k - 1 $, and the number of non-zero coefficients in the representation is $ w ( N) $. For example, $ 23 = 2 ^ {4} + 2 ^ {2} + 2 ^ {1} + 2 ^ {0} = 2 ^ {5} - 2 ^ {3} - 2 ^ {0} $ and $ w ( 23) = 3 $. Since $ \rho ( N _ {1} + N, N _ {2} + N) = \rho ( N _ {1} , N _ {2} ) $ for any $ N _ {1} , N _ {2} , N \in \mathbf Z $, one restricts attention to codes that do not contain negative numbers. By the length of a code $ K $ one means the quantity $ [ \mathop{\rm log} _ {2} B ( K)] + 1 $, where $ B ( K) $ is the largest number of the code $ K $. There corresponds to an arbitrary number $ B $ of a code of length $ n $ a unique word $ \beta ( B) = b _ {n - 1 } \dots b _ {0} $ over the alphabet $ \{ 0, 1 \} $ such that $ B = \sum _ {i = 0 } ^ {n - 1 } b _ {i} 2 ^ {i} $. If the code $ K \subset \mathbf Z $ corrects $ t $ arithmetic errors, then the code $ \{ {\beta ( B) } : {B \in K } \} $ corrects $ t $ errors (of substitution type) by virtue of the fact that $ d ( \beta ( B _ {1} ), \beta ( B _ {2} )) \geq \rho ( B _ {1} , B _ {2} ) $, where $ d ( \cdot , \cdot ) $ is the Hamming metric (see Error-correcting code). In the study of problems of control of an adder one usually considers an encoding $ f: \{ 0 \dots M - 1 \} \rightarrow \mathbf Z $( see Coding and decoding) such that $ f ( i + j) = f ( i) + f ( j) $ for $ i + j < M $( which is equivalent to $ f ( i) = A \cdot i $, where $ A = f ( 1) $). In this case, the coding operation consists in the multiplication of the number to be encoded by $ A $, while the detection of errors in the functioning of the adder consists in verifying that the result of the addition is divisible by $ A $. The code $ K _ {A,M} = \{ 0, A \dots A ( M - 1) \} $ is called an $ AM $- code. The minimum distance of an $ AM $- code is the minimum of the $ w ( A \cdot i) $, $ i = 1 \dots M - 1 $. For example, the minimum distance of a $ 3M $- code is equal to 2; the code detects single arithmetic errors and is often applied in computers (in the form of a control modulo 3). The best studied are (cyclic and negacyclic) $ AM $- codes with $ M = ( 2 ^ {n} \pm 1)/A $; they are characterized by the property that whenever the number $ B = \sum _ {i = 0 } ^ {n - 1 } b _ {i} 2 ^ {i} $, $ b _ {i} = 0, 1 $, belongs to the code, then so does the number $ B ^ { \prime } = \pm b _ {n - 1 } + \sum _ {i = 1 } ^ {n - 1 } b _ {i} 2 ^ {i} $. Such codes, called $ ( n, A) $- codes, can be conveniently regarded as subsets of the metric space $ \mathbf N _ {m} = \{ {0 \dots m - 1 } : {m = 2 ^ {n} \pm 1 } \} $, with metric $ \rho _ {m} ( x, y) = w _ {m} ( x - y) = \min \{ w ( x - y), w ( x - y - m) \} $. The minimum distances of an $ ( n, A) $- code in the metrics $ \rho $ and $ \rho _ {m} $ are equal. To each $ ( n, A) $- code there is associated the $ ( n, A ^ {*} ) $- code where $ AA ^ {*} = m $; it is called the dual code. If 2 or $ - 2 $ are primitive roots modulo a prime number $ p $, then the $ (( p - 1)/2, p) $- code corrects single arithmetic errors and is perfect in the metric $ \rho _ {m} $, that is, the metric balls of radius 1 described around the numbers of the code are not only pairwise disjoint but also fill out the whole of $ \mathbf N _ {m} $. In the dual code, all distances between different numbers of the code are equal to $ \left ] ( p + 1)/6 \right [ $. The results listed above for codes are analogues of results for binary linear cyclic error-correcting codes. Meanwhile, there are no known arithmetic analogues of B.C.H. (Bose–Chaudhury–Hocquenghem)-codes; nor are there any known upper bounds for the size of codes with given length and distance, analogous to the best bound for error-correcting codes. Codes correcting $ q $- ary arithmetic errors $ ( q > 2) $ possess even more characteristics (a $ q $- ary arithmetical error is a transformation of a number $ N $ to a number $ N ^ { \prime } = N \pm aq ^ {i} $, $ a = 1 \dots q - 1 $; $ i = 0, 1 , . . . $). Interest in such codes has increased with the development of computing techniques. Thus, in contrast to error-correcting codes, there are no perfect $ AM $- codes with $ q = 2 ^ {l} $( $ l > 1 $) that correct single $ q $- ary arithmetic errors; for $ q = 6 $ there are examples known of such codes. Existence conditions for perfect $ AM $- codes are of a number-theoretic character and are connected with the study of reciprocity laws in number fields.

References

[1] Yu.G. Dadaev, "The theory of arithmetic codes" , Moscow (1981) (In Russian)
[2] E. Weldon jr., "Error-correcting codes" , M.I.T. (1972)
[3] J.L. Massey, O.N. Garcia, , Advances in information systems science , 4 , New York-London (1972) pp. 273–326
[4] I.M. Boyarinov, G.A. Kabatyanskii, "Perfect single-error-correcting arithmetic AN-codes" Problemy Peredachi Informatsii , 12 : 1 (1976) pp. 16–23 (In Russian)
How to Cite This Entry:
Code with correction of arithmetical errors. Encyclopedia of Mathematics. URL: http://encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Code_with_correction_of_arithmetical_errors&oldid=17963
This article was adapted from an original article by G.A. Kabatyanskii (originator), which appeared in Encyclopedia of Mathematics - ISBN 1402006098. See original article